Ganser Syndrome
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Ganser syndrome is a rare
dissociative disorder Dissociative disorders (DD) are conditions that involve disruptions or breakdowns of memory, awareness, identity, or perception. People with dissociative disorders use dissociation as a defense mechanism, pathologically and involuntarily. The ind ...
characterized by
nonsensical Nonsense is a communication, via speech, writing, or any other symbolic system, that lacks any coherent meaning. Sometimes in ordinary usage, nonsense is synonymous with absurdity or the ridiculous. Many poets, novelists and songwriters have use ...
or wrong answers to questions and other dissociative symptoms such as
fugue In music, a fugue () is a contrapuntal compositional technique in two or more voices, built on a subject (a musical theme) that is introduced at the beginning in imitation (repetition at different pitches) and which recurs frequently in the c ...
,
amnesia Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage or disease,Gazzaniga, M., Ivry, R., & Mangun, G. (2009) Cognitive Neuroscience: The biology of the mind. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. but it can also be caused temporarily by the use ...
or
conversion disorder Conversion disorder (CD), or functional neurologic symptom disorder, is a diagnostic category used in some psychiatric classification systems. It is sometimes applied to patients who present with neurological symptoms, such as numbness, blindness ...
, often with visual
pseudohallucination A pseudohallucination (from grc, ψευδής (pseudḗs) "false, lying" + "hallucination") is an involuntary sensory experience vivid enough to be regarded as a hallucination, but which is recognised by the person experiencing it as being subject ...
s and a decreased
state of consciousness Consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience and awareness of internal and external existence. However, the lack of definitions has led to millennia of analyses, explanations and debates by philosophers, theologians, linguisticians, and scient ...
. The syndrome has also been called ''nonsense syndrome'', ''balderdash syndrome'', ''syndrome of approximate answers'', ''hysterical pseudodementia'' or ''prison psychosis''. The term prison psychosis is sometimes used because the syndrome occurs most frequently in prison inmates, where it may be seen as an attempt to gain leniency from prison or court officials. Psychological symptoms generally resemble the patient's sense of mental illness rather than any recognized category. The syndrome may occur in persons with other mental disorders such as
schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social withdra ...
,
depressive disorder A mood disorder, also known as an affective disorder, is any of a group of conditions of mental and behavioral disorder where a disturbance in the person's mood is the main underlying feature. The classification is in the ''Diagnostic and Stat ...
s,
toxic Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a subst ...
states,
paresis In medicine, paresis () is a condition typified by a weakness of voluntary movement, or by partial loss of voluntary movement or by impaired movement. When used without qualifiers, it usually refers to the limbs, but it can also be used to desc ...
,
alcohol use disorders Alcoholism is, broadly, any drinking of alcohol that results in significant mental or physical health problems. Because there is disagreement on the definition of the word ''alcoholism'', it is not a recognized diagnostic entity. Predomin ...
and
factitious disorders A factitious disorder is a condition in which a person, ''without'' a malingering motive, acts as if they have an illness by deliberately producing, feigning, or exaggerating symptoms, purely to attain (for themselves or for another) a patient's ...
.Knoblosh, F. (1986). Ganser Syndrome and DSM-III.
American Journal of Psychiatry ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'' is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering all aspects of psychiatry, and is the official journal of the American Psychiatric Association. The first volume was issued in 1844, at which time it was k ...
, 143(3), 393-393.
Ganser syndrome can sometimes be diagnosed as merely malingering, but it is more often defined as dissociative disorder. The identification of Ganser syndrome is attributed to German
psychiatrist A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in psychiatry, the branch of medicine devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, study, and treatment of mental disorders. Psychiatrists are physicians and evaluate patients to determine whether their sy ...
Sigbert Ganser (1853–1931). In 1898, he described the disorder in prisoners awaiting trial in a penal institution in Halle,
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
. He named impaired consciousness and distorted communication, namely in the form of approximate answers (also referred to as ''Vorbeireden'' in the literature), as the defining symptoms of the syndrome.Whitlock, F.A. (1967). The Ganser Syndrome.
British Journal of Psychiatry The ''British Journal of Psychiatry'' is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering all branches of psychiatry with a particular emphasis on the clinical aspects of each topic. The journal is owned by the Royal College of Psychiatrists and publis ...
, 113(494), 19-29.
Vorbeireden involves the inability to answer questions precisely, although the content of the questions is understood.Weiner, H.; Brainman, A. (1955). The Ganser Syndrome: A Review and Addition of Some Unusual Cases.
American Journal of Psychiatry ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'' is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering all aspects of psychiatry, and is the official journal of the American Psychiatric Association. The first volume was issued in 1844, at which time it was k ...
, 111(10), 767-773.
Ganser syndrome is described as a
dissociative disorder not otherwise specified Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified (DDNOS) was a mental health diagnosis for pathological dissociation that matched the DSM-IV criteria for a dissociative disorder, but did not fit the full criteria for any of the specifically identifie ...
(NOS) in the
DSM-IV The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langua ...
, and is not currently listed in the
DSM-5 The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition'' (DSM-5), is the 2013 update to the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'', the taxonomic and diagnostic tool published by the American Psychiatric ...
. It is a rare and an often overlooked clinical phenomenon. In most cases, it is preceded by extreme stress and followed by
amnesia Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage or disease,Gazzaniga, M., Ivry, R., & Mangun, G. (2009) Cognitive Neuroscience: The biology of the mind. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. but it can also be caused temporarily by the use ...
for the period of psychosis. In addition to approximate answers, other symptoms include a
clouding of consciousness Clouding of consciousness (also known as brain fog or mental fog) occurs when a person is slightly less Wakefulness, wakeful or Awareness, aware than normal. They are not as aware of time or their surroundings and find it difficult to pay attentio ...
, somatic
conversion disorder Conversion disorder (CD), or functional neurologic symptom disorder, is a diagnostic category used in some psychiatric classification systems. It is sometimes applied to patients who present with neurological symptoms, such as numbness, blindness ...
symptoms, confusion, stress, loss of personal identity,
echolalia Echolalia is the unsolicited repetition of vocalizations made by another person (when repeated by the same person, it is called palilalia). In its profound form it is automatic and effortless. It is one of the echophenomena, closely related t ...
, and
echopraxia Echopraxia (also known as echokinesis) is the involuntary repetition or imitation of another person's actions. Similar to echolalia, the involuntary repetition of sounds and language, it is one of the echophenomena ("automatic imitative actions w ...
.


Cause

To date, no definitive cause or reason of the disorder has been established.Mendis, S.; Hodgson, R.E. (2012). Ganser Syndrome: examining the aetiological debate through a systematic case report review.
European Journal of Psychiatry European, or Europeans, or Europeneans, may refer to: In general * ''European'', an adjective referring to something of, from, or related to Europe ** Ethnic groups in Europe ** Demographics of Europe ** European cuisine, the cuisines of Europe ...
, 26(2).
The sources that classify the syndrome as a
dissociative disorder Dissociative disorders (DD) are conditions that involve disruptions or breakdowns of memory, awareness, identity, or perception. People with dissociative disorders use dissociation as a defense mechanism, pathologically and involuntarily. The ind ...
or a
factitious disorder A factitious disorder is a condition in which a person, ''without'' a malingering motive, acts as if they have an illness by deliberately producing, feigning, or exaggerating symptoms, purely to attain (for themselves or for another) a patient's ...
conflict in their proposed aetiologies. As a result, there are differing theories as to why the syndrome develops. Ganser syndrome was previously classified as a
factitious disorder A factitious disorder is a condition in which a person, ''without'' a malingering motive, acts as if they have an illness by deliberately producing, feigning, or exaggerating symptoms, purely to attain (for themselves or for another) a patient's ...
, explaining the symptoms as mimicking of what patients who do not experience psychosis believe is typical of the experience. However, the DSM-IV placed the syndrome under "Dissociative Disorders Not Otherwise Specified". There has been evidence of a strong correlation between approximate answers and amnesia, suggesting that these have an underlying dissociative mechanism.Cocores, J.A.; Santa, W.G.; Patel L, MD. (1985). The Ganser Syndrome: Evidence Suggesting its Classification as a Dissociative Disorder. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 14(1), 47-56. Both Ganser's syndrome and the broader category of dissociative disorders have been linked to histories of hysteria, psychosis, conversion, multiple personality and possible feigning. Despite this, the condition's aetiology remains under question due to associations with established psychiatric disorders, as well as organic states. According to Stern and Whiles (1942), Ganser syndrome is a fundamentally psychotic illness. As evidence, they describe the case of a woman with recurrent mania and a head injury before being submitted to treatment and the report of a man with schizophrenia who suffered from alcoholism and had recently been in prison. Ganser syndrome is also sometimes referred to as "prison psychosis", emphasizing its prevalence among prisoners, generating discussion about whether the disorder only appears in this population. In a study of prisoners, Estes and New concluded that escaping an intolerable situation, such as being incarcerated, prompted the syndrome's key symptoms. The study touched on the malingering controversy surrounding the syndrome, as well as the
stress Stress may refer to: Science and medicine * Stress (biology), an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition * Stress (linguistics), relative emphasis or prominence given to a syllable in a word, or to a word in a phrase ...
component that often precedes the disorder. According to consultant psychiatrist F. A. Whitlock, Ganser syndrome is a hysterical disorder, on par with Ganser's description of the disorder. Whitlock pointed to the number of cases in which Ganser syndrome was reported in settings of organic brain disease or functional psychosis as evidence of its hysterical foundations. Kraepelin and Bumke also believed the syndrome to be of a hysterical nature. Bumke thought the syndrome hysterical because amnesia for a traumatic emotional event tends to occur in hysteria more than in other disorders. The giving of approximate answers is thought to be produced in hysterical personalities. According to Mayer-Gross and Bleuler, Ganser syndrome occurs mainly in
epileptic Epilepsy is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrical ...
or
schizophrenic Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social withdra ...
patients. Still others claim that an organic condition that could lead to the manifestation of Ganser syndrome symptoms would have to be at an advanced stage in which a diagnosis could be easily given.Koenig, T.; Lee, H.B. (2001). A Case of Ganser Syndrome: Organic or Hysterical?. General Hospital Psychiatry, 23(4), 230-231. There have also been reports of trauma and stroke patients with the syndrome. A study investigating the neurological basis of Ganser syndrome described a patient with symptoms of the disorder who had a history of stroke and bifrontal infarcts.Ouyang, D., Duggal, H. S., & Jacob, N. J. (2003). Neurobiological Basis of Ganser Syndrome.
Indian Journal of Psychiatry The ''Indian Journal of Psychiatry'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed open access medical journal. It is published by Medknow Publications on behalf of the Indian Psychiatric Society. It covers research in all fields of psychiatry. Each year, the Ap ...
, 45(4), 255–256.
They discovered that hyperglutamatergic states, which are caused by both
stroke A stroke is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain causes cell death. There are two main types of stroke: ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and hemorrhagic, due to bleeding. Both cause parts of the brain to stop functionin ...
s and stress, share a relationship with dissociative symptoms, suggesting a possible organic pathology that can predispose individuals to the syndrome. Wirtz and colleagues (2008) described a patient with Ganser syndrome after a left-hemispheric middle cerebral artery infarct. A neuropsychological examination revealed atypical lateralisation of cognitive functions, leading to the conclusion that the giving of approximate answers might be related to frontal-executive cerebral dysfunction.


Diagnosis

Ganser syndrome was listed under
Factitious Disorder A factitious disorder is a condition in which a person, ''without'' a malingering motive, acts as if they have an illness by deliberately producing, feigning, or exaggerating symptoms, purely to attain (for themselves or for another) a patient's ...
with Psychological Symptoms in the
DSM-III The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langua ...
.American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC. American Psychiatric Association, 1952. The criteria of this category emphasized symptoms that cannot be explained by other mental disorders, psychological symptoms under the control of the individual, and the goal of assuming a patient role, not otherwise understandable given their circumstances. The
DSM-IV-TR The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langua ...
classified Ganser syndrome as a dissociative disorder defined by the giving of approximate answers to questions (e.g. '2 plus 2 equals 5' when not associated with dissociative amnesia or dissociative fugue).American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Text rev. Washington, DC. American Psychiatric Association, 2000. The
ICD-10 ICD-10 is the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), a medical classification list by the World Health Organization (WHO). It contains codes for diseases, signs and symptoms, ...
World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization. and
DSM-IV The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langua ...
do not specify any diagnostic criteria—apart from approximate answers—as a requirement for a Ganser syndrome diagnosis. Most case studies of the syndrome also depend on the presence of approximate answers and at least one of the other symptoms described by Ganser in his original paper. Usually when giving wrong answers, individuals are only slightly off, showing that the individual understood the questionBromberg, W. (1986). The neglect of Ganser Syndrome. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 143(7), 937-938. For instance, when asked how many legs a horse has, they might say, "five". Although subjects appear confused in their answers, in other respects they appear to understand their surroundings. Amnesia, loss of personal identity, and clouding of consciousness were among the most common symptoms apart from approximate answers. Although there is currently no uniform way to diagnose the syndrome, a full neurological and mental state examination is recommended to determine its presence as well as tests that assess malingering.Epstein, R.S. (1991). Ganser Syndrome, Trance Logic, and the Question of Malingering.
Psychiatric Annals ''Psychiatric Annals'' is a monthly peer-reviewed review journal covering the field of psychiatry. It is published by Slack and the editor-in-chief is Andrew A. Nierenberg (Harvard Medical School). History The journal was established in September ...
, 21(4), 238-244.
In addition to mental examination, other investigations should be done to exclude other underlying causes. These include computer tomography scans (CT) or
magnetic resonance imaging Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio wave ...
(MRI) scans to exclude structural pathology,
lumbar puncture Lumbar puncture (LP), also known as a spinal tap, is a medical procedure in which a needle is inserted into the spinal canal, most commonly to collect cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for diagnostic testing. The main reason for a lumbar puncture is to ...
to exclude
meningitis Meningitis is acute or chronic inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, collectively called the meninges. The most common symptoms are fever, headache, and neck stiffness. Other symptoms include confusion or ...
or
encephalitis Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain. The severity can be variable with symptoms including reduction or alteration in consciousness, headache, fever, confusion, a stiff neck, and vomiting. Complications may include seizures, hallucinations, ...
, and
electroencephalography Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method to record an electrogram of the spontaneous electrical activity of the brain. The biosignals detected by EEG have been shown to represent the postsynaptic potentials of pyramidal neurons in the neocortex ...
(EEG), to exclude delirium or seizure disorder.Dwyer, J.; Reid, S. (2004). Ganser's Syndrome.
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, 364(9432), 471-473.
Diagnosing Ganser syndrome is challenging because of its rarity and symptom variability. The manifested symptoms may be dependent on the individual's conception of what mental illness entails, creating the possibility of a wide range of combinations of symptoms present in an individual with Ganser syndrome.


Treatment

In many cases, the symptoms seem to dwindle after a few days, and patients are often left with amnesia for the period of psychosis. Hospitalization may be necessary during the acute phase of symptoms, and psychiatric care if the patient is a danger to self or others.Carney, M.W.P.; Chary, T.N.K.; Robotis, P.; Childs, A. (1987). Ganser Syndrome and its Management.
British Journal of Psychiatry The ''British Journal of Psychiatry'' is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering all branches of psychiatry with a particular emphasis on the clinical aspects of each topic. The journal is owned by the Royal College of Psychiatrists and publis ...
, 151, 697-700.
A neurological consult is advised to rule out any organic cause. Psychotherapy may also recommended for ensuring and maintaining safety. Ganser patients typically recover quickly and completely.Enoch, M. D., & Irving, G. (1962). The Ganser syndrome.
Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica The ''Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica'' is a Scandinavian peer-reviewed medical journal containing original research, systematic reviews etc. relating to clinical and experimental psychiatry. According to the ''Journal Citation Reports'', the journa ...
, 38(3), 213-222.
Since Ganser syndrome can be a response to psychic deterioration, its resolution may be followed by other psychiatric symptoms, such as schizophreniaLieberman, A.A. (1954). The Ganser Syndrome in Psychoses.
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease ''The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'' is a peer-reviewed medical journal on psychopathology. It was established in 1874 as the ''Chicago Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease''. "Chicago" was dropped from the title beginning in 1876. Articl ...
, 120(1-2), 10-16.
and depression,Haddah, P.M. (1993). Ganser Syndrome Followed by Major Depressive Episode.
British Journal of Psychiatry The ''British Journal of Psychiatry'' is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering all branches of psychiatry with a particular emphasis on the clinical aspects of each topic. The journal is owned by the Royal College of Psychiatrists and publis ...
, 161, 251-253.
hence the rationale behind the recommendation of psychotherapy. Medication is usually not required.


Epidemiology

Reviewing multiple collections of case studies, the incidence of the disorder is not precisely known. Individuals of multiple backgrounds have been reported as having the disorder. The syndrome was historically thought to be more common in men. However, Whitlock speculates that the higher reported rate of Ganser in men might be due to the greater proportion of men who are incarcerated. It has been most frequently seen in individuals ages 15 to 40 and has also been observed in children.Miller, P.; Bramble, D.; Buxton, N. (1997). Case Study: Ganser Syndrome in Children and Adolescents.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry The ''Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry'' is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering pediatric psychiatry. It is published by Elsevier and is the official journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent ...
, 36(1), 112-115.
This wide age range is derived from case studies, and therefore may not be an accurate estimate. Ganser syndrome has also been observed in groups other than prison populations.


Controversy

There is controversy regarding whether Ganser syndrome is a valid clinical entity. For example, Bromberg (1986) has argued that the syndrome is not due to or related to mental illness, but rather a sort of defense against legal punishment. Some see it as conscious lying, denial and repression, presenting Ganser syndrome symptoms as malingering instead of a dissociative or factitious disorder. One case study of Ganser syndrome presented a middle-aged man who had been in a car crash and wanted disability insurance benefits.Merckelbach, H.; Peters, M.; Jelicic, M.; Brands, I. and Smeets, T. (2006). Detecting malingering of Ganser‐like symptoms with tests: A case study. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 60: 636-638. Since he had a big incentive, psychologists took careful measures and implemented testing with malingering instruments, which showed that the man performed below chance on simple memory tests and claimed to experience non-existent symptoms. Upon further inspection of the collateral information, they found that the patient took part in high-level sports and other activities that were inconsistent with the cognitive dysfunctions he reported, and they determined it to be a case of malingering. Estes and New (1948) concluded that the motivation for the symptoms of the syndrome was escaping an "intolerable situation". Stern and Whiles proposed an alternative explanation, citing Ganser syndrome presented itself in individuals who, although not psychologically well, do not realize it, and want to appear so. Still others attribute the syndrome to inattention, purposeful evasion, suppression, alcoholic excess, head injury, and to unconscious attempts to deceive others as a means to free themselves from responsibility for their actions. This denial of behaviour can be seen as a way to overcome anxiety and helplessness brought on by the stressful event that often precedes the syndrome. These aetiological debates focus on the main symptom of Ganser syndrome and its importance in its diagnosis. Approximate answers are prominent in the Ganser syndrome literature, causing concern in those who believe that this is a relatively simple symptom to feign. Ganser syndrome was regarded as an Adjustment Reaction of Adult Life in the
DSM-II The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langua ...
and later was moved under the category of Factitious Disorder with Psychological Symptoms in the
DSM-III The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langua ...
. Ganser syndrome can also be found under the
Dissociative Disorder Not Otherwise Specified Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified (DDNOS) was a mental health diagnosis for pathological dissociation that matched the DSM-IV criteria for a dissociative disorder, but did not fit the full criteria for any of the specifically identifie ...
(DDNOS) section of the
DSM-IV-TR The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langua ...
, however it is not listed in the
DSM-5 The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition'' (DSM-5), is the 2013 update to the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'', the taxonomic and diagnostic tool published by the American Psychiatric ...
, which got rid of the DDNOS section and replaced it with
Other Specified Dissociative Disorder Other specified dissociative disorder (OSDD) is a mental health diagnosis for pathological dissociation that matches the DSM-5 criteria for a dissociative disorder, but does not fit the full criteria for any of the specifically identified subtypes ...
(OSDD) and Unspecified Dissociative Disorder (USDD).American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing Despite this, the
International Classification of Diseases The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) is a globally used diagnostic tool for epidemiology, health management and clinical purposes. The ICD is maintained by the World Health Organization (WHO), which is the directing and coordinating ...
has Ganser syndrome listed under dissociative disorders.


See also

*
Paraphasia Paraphasia is a type of language output error commonly associated with aphasia, and characterized by the production of unintended syllables, words, or phrases during the effort to speak. Paraphasic errors are most common in patients with fluent for ...


References


Further reading

*


External links

{{Authority control Forensic psychology Factitious disorders Stress-related disorders Dissociative disorders Psychopathological syndromes